аааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааааа Prof.Dr. VLADIMIR KATASONOV

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ааа аааMISSIONARYа WORKа OFа LEIBNIZТа PHILOSOPHY

 

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аааааааааааааааааа The modern philosophical thought is aggravated in much by philosophy of culture. The experience of differences of world cultures, of world religions, experience both of theoretical understanding and practical political intercourse of different traditions, taught us to distinguish and to estimate these differences. The theoretical attempts to understand the plurality of cultures in the works of N.Danilevsky, O.Spengler, A.Toynbee made us more to understand the history as complicated and likely non one-dimensional process. There are more pro and contra for this approach. Sometimes the substitution of philosophy by culturology relativizes the notion itself of truth, and makes attempts of mutual understanding of cultures apriori fruitless, disjoins the mankind. We see with some kind of envy on the philosophical systems of the past, which, notwithstanding some naivety, - today enough evident, - which were orientated on the ideal of common for all the people truth, leading to the common God. LeibnizТ philosophy gives here the remarkable example, which makes to speak about the missionary work of LeibnizТ philosophy.

 

аааа LeibnizТа pan - rationalism, as universalа cognitive language

 

аааааааааааа LeibnizТ pan-rationalism was not a simple theoretical system, but, according to the purposes of its inventor, was, above that, the definite way to God. In general Christian thesis about man, as image of God, the intellectual meaning was especially important for Leibniz : human reason is similar to GodТs reason. And more else, all GodТs activity in the world comes to be in correspondence with the universal principles of reason, revealed to human thought.

аааааааааааааааааа Inа LeibnizТ metaphysics the created spirits(monads) have no limits, practically, in their progress of cognition. LeibnizТ monads differ one from another only by degree of clarity of their presentations. Only God has the perfect clarity of presentation of Universe. But every monad can approach to this presentation, in principle, infinitely closely: УGod, making all in order, paid attention on every part and, especially, on every monad. And nothing can limit the representative nature of monad so, that it can represent only one part of things; of course, this representation is only vague, regarding all the plurality and the particularity of Universum, it may be distinguished only regarding the small part of things, which are whether the closest to every monad or the biggest, in comparison with it; otherwise every monad would be God. Monads are limited not in subject, but in the way of cognition. They all vaguely apprehend the infinity <of Universe - V.K.>, the All, but they are limited and differ one from another by the degree of clarity in presentationsФ[1]. One place in this citation is very interesting: if monad had the perfect presentations, she would be God. The difference between God and reasonable monad is pure epistemological. Leibniz names nowhere, as I know, God by the name of monad. But both God and created monads are, according to Leibniz, simple substances[2]. There isа one more argument for the continuous change from created monads to God. ItТs famous LeibnizТ scale of beings. According to fundamental LeibnizТ principle of continuity, all created beings may be arranged in series, in accordance with some formula, which describes their essential features : УTo my mind, there is the good foundations to think, the all different genera of beings satisfyа to some formula in GodТs thought, who knows their essential features, till such degree, that its unity would be upset, if we could find some intermediate solutions between two successive ones; it would be the testimony of disorder and imperfectionФ[3]. According to Leibniz, there is continuous change in features from minerals to plants, to animals and, at last, to human being. And from human being one can move up along the staircase of perfection to God... But, I repeat, Leibniz doesnТt affirm the ontological identity of monads to God. God, besides the perfect cognition, can create monads themselves. God is in this ontological series of beings, so to speak, the actual infinite point[4].

ааааааааааааа But in epistemological sense Leibniz insists constantly on the continuous change from scientific cognition of nature to that of God. In other fragment about the principle of continuity he writes : УSo, by this <i.e. by application of the principle of continuity - V.K.> one can understand more thoroughly than usually, how to deduce the true physics from GodТs perfections. You know, God is the last ground of things, and so the cognition of God is the scientific principle no less, than his essence and will are the principles of things. The more someone understands philosophy, the easier he agrees to that. But till now only few could deduce from GodТs features the truths, having some significance for sciencesФ[5]. This subordination of science and philosophy to highest theological principles makes possible to ascend from science to this principles, to ascend to the cognition of God. Leibniz names these high principles the architectonical principles of our cognition. For example, the principle of the best: God creates the best of the possible worlds. The other one is the famous principle of sufficient reason: all, what happens, has the sufficient reason of its existence. For Leibniz, these bases were not pure logical principles, being applied only to human conditions. They expressed, at first, the perfection of God, the Creator of Universe.

ааа ааааааааааааааааIn his theological views Leibniz was conscious follower of the definite medieval tradition. Leibniz always argued against the image of God, as the omnipotent despot, not tied in his actions by any limits. For Descartes, for example, who was the follower of voluntarist tradition in theology, 2 × 2 = 4 is right only because God decided this by his omnipotent will, and if He decidedа 2 × 2 = 5, then it would be right, as well, though our mathematics would be completely different. These views were unacceptable for Leibniz. LeibnizТ God depends on Himself, on, so to speak, his own perfection, on his own determinations of omniscience and omnigoodness. GodТs actions must correspond to these self-definitions. God is, in some sense, УtiedФ by them. So, e.g., one can find in LeibnizТ writings such a places ( in Essais de theodicee...) : У(53) But they could say : so, God canТt change anything in the world ? In this time God, definitely, canТt change anything without the damage to his own wisdom, because He foresaw the being of this world and of all that, which it contains, and decided for its existence; because He can neither make mistakes nor correct Himself, He canТt take an imperfect decision, concerning only one part of the world, but not the all partsФ[6]. Such views were not the news in catholic theology. Leibniz consciously reckoned himself among the followers of the intellectualistic tradition in theology. Leibniz wrote to Pierre Bayle : УAs regards free will, I agree with thomists and other philosophers, who think, that all is predestinated, and I donТt see a reason to doubt it. But it doesnТt disturb us to have freedom, saved both from compulsion and necessity; in this regards it happens with us the same, as with God himself, who is determined in his actions, as well, because He canТt avoid the duty to choose the bestФ[7]. God acts, according to Leibniz, not arbitrary but in accordance with his perfect reason. Particularly, He is tied by the principle of sufficient reason. The entire Universe is subordinated to this principle, as well. But it was LeibnizТ capacity to embody this general philosophical views in concrete scientific theories, which was his real greatness. E.g. the discussion about the relations of free will and predestination leads him to the conception of the little perceptions, which had its analogue in LeibnizТ mathematics ( the conception of the differential)[8].

ааааааааааааааа But not all in religion is rational. Leibniz agrees the basic religious dogmata to be the revelations. In Christianity these are the dogmata of Trinity, of ChristТs resurrection, of transubstantiation etc. But these revealed truths, by Leibniz, must be and are in accordance with general universum of logical truths. Leibniz distinguishes here the logical or metaphysical necessity, i.e. the truths, the opposite to which is contradictory; and physical necessity, based on the laws given to nature by God. The revealed truths canТt contradict to logical necessity, but they can contradict to the physical one, i.e. to be the miracle. At the same time, strictly speaking, it isnТt the miracle, because our presentations of nature and its laws are limited, and God, always, has complementary Уdegree of freedomФ to make something, which contradicts to the known laws. But nevertheless, all, created by God, must be inside the sphere of general metaphysical necessity, assumed by God as the base of the world. Man cognizes the laws of this metaphysical necessity not out of experience (as the laws of nature), but out of his own reason.

 

Four principles of LeibnizТа approachа to Chineseа religion

 

аааааааааааааа It is interesting to estimate LeibnizТ methodology in approach to Chinese religion in the context of our theme. In the beginning of УDiscourse on the Natural Theology of the ChineseФ Leibniz calls European scholars to be more careful in their critics of Chinese culture. Indicating how old is Chinese civilization, Leibniz writes: УIt would be highly foolish and presumptuous on our part, having newly arrived compared with them, and scarcely out of barbarism, to want to condemn such an ancient doctrine simply because it does not appear to agree at first glance with our ordinary scholastic notionsФ[9]. But, rather, Leibniz runs himself to other extreme. LeibnizТ faith in common roots of human reason and culture makes him to look for the mutual principles of religious ethics. He always tries to smooth out the sharp differences between the revealed Christian religion and Chinese cults, to find out the mutual features. Leibniz does not choose out of Gospels the slogan Уsword and divisionФ, but rather another one: Фhe, who is not against us is for usФ.

ааааааааааааааа Chinese cult of ancestors could be suspectedа as the form of deifying of man. And Leibniz tried to give the appropriate soft interpretation of this cult (and even to find something close in Christianity) : УIn the cult which Chinese display towards Confucius and other deceased worthy of merit, especially their own ancestors, it apparently happens that there are rites which many elsewhere would view as religious ones. But it is quite certain that these symbols are mostly so ambiguous that their veneration can be seen as some sort of political cult, like emperors - even Christian ones - who employ the name of the divinity. We indeed know the Chinese people have gone to more extremes in ceremonial pomp than other nations, and in this regard they have fallen into excess. But such excesses do not require a strict interpretationФ[10].

аааааааааааааа Leibniz had no enough information to estimate more exactly the religious sense of Chinese cults. In these circumstances he insisted to be more attentive and not to hurry in the accusation of the Chinese in atheism. Leibniz considered himself here to followа Apostle Paul and Church Fathers: УIn the meantime, even if it is regarded equivocally, it is advisable to give it the most favorable meaning - as the Apostle Paul is said to have done in taking the altar erected to an unknown god as having been instituted by the Athenians for rites which they ought to have celebrated rather than for those which they usually practiced. It would be rash to declare war aspondon on the Emperor and the Chinese sages, as if they were accused of atheism. I praise the foresight of Matteo Ricci, a great man, for following the example of the Church Fathers who interpreted Plato and other philosophers in a Christian fashionФ[11].

аааааааааааааааааааа This Уpresumption of innocenceФ of Chinese religion was only week expression of LeibnizТ benevolence and openness to Chinese culture. More strong testimony of this benevolence was LeibnizТ opposition to LangobardiТsа accusations of the Chinese in atheism. Here we see Leibniz to use the universal moral arguments and, so called, УGod of gapsФ one: УAs for the accounts of the anti-Jesuit missionaries, it seems to me that one can conclude that the Chinese view such veneration towards ancestors and people of great merit as advantageous so that those who practice the cult expect some benefit from it. However, they could with equal justice believe that every act deemed a virtue by the sages - and among them gratitude is not the lowest - confers considerable happiness on humankind, either because this is itself the nature of human conditions or, more likely, because of a superior power providentially governing all. But it is not as if they attribute this power to the souls themselvesФ[12].

аааааааааааааааа To understand means for Leibniz to find the identity in the different. So, to understand Chinese religion means to find the most possible closeness and similarity with Christian one. Almost everywhere in his writings on China Leibniz uses three main principles to justify Chinese cults against the accusation in atheism:

1.     absence of full information,

2.     the relative closeness to habits of Christian peoples,

3.     the possibility of interpretation of the benefits receiving in Chinese cults, as a grace coming from a Supreme Power (УGod of gapsФ) and, therefore, again, to find in Chinese cults the remote likeness with Christianity.

The two last approaches look like a sort of the embodiment of LeibnizТ principle of continuity.

аааааааааааааа In particular we can find such places in УRemarks on Chinese rites and religionФ: УHowа far the civil ceremonies can be extended and by which Уreligion of thanksgivingФ, so to speak, can heroes or men of great merit be honored, I leave to the theologians for analysis. It is well established that, at one time, it was usual among Christians at the feast of St.Catharine, celebrated by philosophers, for much to be said in honor of Aristotle, even though there were no ceremonies... One must carefully weigh in what spirit the Chinese worshipped their ancestors or those of great merits, especially whether they believed they were understood by those whom they worshipped and whether they demanded or expected something from them. From the fact that the worshippers of ancestors expect benefits promised by the priests, it does not follow that they expect them from the departed, since these benefits can originate from a higher cause who is pleased by gratitude, just as with Moses, God promised long life to those honoring father and motherФ[13].

ааааааааааа Sometimes, this Leibniz will to close Christianity and Chinese cults seems to be too obtrusive. One can suspect that even if it had been irrefutably proved Chinese cults to be УpureФ paganism, nevertheless, Leibniz would have tried to find out some mutual features...а So, at the end of УDiscourse of the Natural Theology of the ChineseФ Leibniz makes attempts to close the understanding of the fate of souls after death in Christianity and Chinese religion:╗ It is true that the Chinese scholars speak neither of Hell nor of purgatory, but it is possible that some among them believe or have believed at other times that the wandering souls which prowl here and there in the mountains and the forests are in a sort of purgatory... Without making too much of a comparison between the opinions of the Christians and the pagans, one could nevertheless say that there is something approaching this in the life of St.Conrad, a Bishop of Constance, whose biography is published in the second volume of my collection, where it is recorded that he and his friend St.Udalric discovered souls in the form of birds condemned to the waterfall of the Rhine which they saved by their prayers. So too, perhaps, according to some of these literari, ancient or modern, souls deserving of punishment become spirits destined to lowly stations, guarding doors and tending kitchens and furnaces until they have expiated themselvesФ[14].

аааааааа ааааAt last, there is one more, fourth Leibniz mode to justify Chinese cults against the accusation in atheism. One can name it:

4.     the principle of hermeneutical advantage .

It has its roots in the history of Christian culture itself. The Christians in many cases understand the Old Testament as the predictions about the events of the New One, i.e. better than Hebrews themselves. Leibniz supposes the same situation may be with Chinese cults (ignoring nevertheless that the Old Testament is overfilled by pathos of monotheism, in contrast to Chinese cults) . The philosopher writes: УIt is not absurd for discerning Europeans (such as Ricci) to see something today which is not adequately known by the Chinese erudites, and to be able to interpret their ancient books better than the erudites themselves. Who does not know in our own day that Christian scholars are much better interpreters of the most ancient books of the Hebrews than the Jews themselves ? How often strangers have better insight into the histories and monuments of a nation than their own citizens! This is even more likely concerning doctrines more than twenty centuries removed from the Chinese, who are quite possibly not as equipped with the interpretive aids as we, informed about Chinese literature, and especially aided by European methodsФ[15].

ааааааааааааа Summing up, one can define LeibnizТ approach to Chinese religion as the monological[16] one. In LeibnizТ meeting with Chinese religion he encounters nothing essential new, there is neither dialogue nor the Other. This meeting is only the attempt to find out in Chinese cults anything already known, to interpret them as a remote likeness of Christian religion. Notwithstanding all the freedom of these interpretations, - but sooner because of them, - Leibniz opens nothing new for his religious horizon. He remains centeredа on Christianity. In his writings on China he remains the missionary. In more wide cultural sphere Leibniz knew to find the possibility for true dialogue. But always he tried to shape all the new in the sense of his constant tendency to a universal culture.

 

Integrativeа forceа ofа LeibnizТа philosophy

 

ааааааааааа LeibnizТ philosophy contains the powerful integrative cultural impuls. All the positive knowledge of different cultures Leibniz seeks to unite in one whole system. The base of this cultural unity is the unity of human nature itself. The different peoples develop this universal pan-culture in different directions, but its principles are everywhere identical. So, Europe is in advance in the development of theoretical knowledge, but China, this УEurope of the EastФ, by Leibniz, is able to use better the practical knowledge. УDenn die Physik, - we read in the introduction to УNovissima SinicaФ,- stuetzt sich mehr auf praktische Beobachtungen, die Mathematik dagegen auf theoretische Ueberlegungen des Verstandes. In diesen letzteren zeichnet sich unser Europa aus, aber in der praktischen Erfahrungen sind die Chinesen die Ueberlegen, weil in ihrem Reich, das seit so vielen Jahrtausenden blueht, die Traditionen der Alten bewahrt wurden, die in Europa durch die Wanderungen der Voelker zum grossen Teil verlorengingenФ[17].

ааааааааааааааааааааа Leibniz acknowledges, as we said above, there are the peculiarity,- and at first, the revealed truths of religion, - which are not deduced from human reason. But Leibniz was alien to the theme of boundaries of cultures. LeibnizТ refined rationalism seeks to find in all the different the mutual base and to reduce these differences to that of species in one genus. Because of that, we see constant LeibnizТ efforts to overcome a separation: to maintain the system of scientific Academies, the program of universal peace, the conciliation of religions. Sometimes, this plans are enough utopian, just because they ignore the specific character of cultures[18]. From all this more or less successful attempts, one general methodological idea arises, which is important today for us : something in culture can pretend to have the superrational genesis and significance only after having been tested by scientific analyses and having exposed its non - isomorphism to the past knowledge. As if LeibnizТ rationalism tests the cultures on the ontological strength, splitting them, isolating in them the superrational religious kernel, the peculiarity, from general human rational component.

аааааааааааааа The united, common to all mankind rational pan - culture had to be expressed in the language of Characteristica Universalis. Properly speaking, Characteristica Universalis was that culture. Leibniz had the big hopes on this universal scientific algorithm.╗ With its help < with the help of Characteristica Universalis - V.K.>, debates can be resolved forever, if they can be settled on the base of some data; and if one took the pen, it would be enough for the two disputing men, having set aside the argumentations, to say one another : letТs calculate!Ф[19] It is interesting, that according to LeibnizТ intention, this algorithm must be effective not only in the domain of natural sciences, but in that of theological and moral ones, as well. It must serve to improving of dispositions and achievement of happiness : У...I would dare to affirm that from this science the piety and justice would follow always; freedom and health - in most casesФ[20]. The Уkeys to happinessФ, by Leibniz, are rational.

аааааааааааааааа The construction of Characteristica Universalis demanded, of course, the considerable efforts. Here, for Leibniz the role of mathematics was central. Characteristica Universalis itself is being built in the manner of mathematics and represents the special universal mathematics (mathesis universalis). In Novissima Sinica we read : УMan muss allerdings die Mathematik nicht nach Art eines Handwerkers, sondern der eines Philosophen betreiben. Tugend fliesst naemlich aus Weisheit, die Seele der Weisheit aber ist die Wahrheit, und dienigen, die die Beweise der Wahrheiten erfasst und koennen Sicheres von Unsicherem unterscheiden, waehrend die uebrigen Menschen zwischen Vermutungen hin-а und herschwanken und aehnlich, wie Pilatus fragte, nicht wissen, was Wahrheit ist. Daher besteht kein Zweifel, dass der Herrscher der Chinesen deutlich das gesehen hat, was in unserem Teil der Welt einst Platon hervorhob, naemlich, dass man nur durch Mathematik mit den Geheimnissen der Wissenschaft vertraut werden koenneФ[21]. Mathematics and rational knowledge are for every culture like its own representatives, like its ambassadors in the other one. The mutual understanding and consent of cultures and peoples in domain of mathematics must be continued on more wide sphere. Thus, it was the big joy for Leibniz when Boubet pointed the similarity between the trigrams of Yi Jing and LeibnizТ binary arithmetic. For Leibnizа it was just the case to make more wide theological conclusions : УAnd thus, as far as I understand, I think the substance of the ancient theology of the Chinese is intact and, purged of additional errors, can be harnessed to the great truths of the Christian religion. Fohi, the most ancient prince and philosopher of the Chinese, had understood the origins of things from unity and nothing, i.e., his mysterious figures reveal something of an analogy to Creation, containing the binary arithmetic ( and yet hinting at greater things) that I rediscovered after so many thousands of years, where all numbers are written by only two notations, 0 and 1Ф[22].

ааааааааааааааааа Here, always, the question about the limits of rationalism arises. Leibniz, as it was said above, acknowledged completely the role of revealed truths. But in his philosophy, these truths, as well, must be coordinated with common for all mankind area of metaphysical knowledge, which is subordinated (in principle) to the methods of Characteristica Universalis. And this opened the way to comparison of religions and to the building of the universal rational religion[23]...

ааааааааааааааа In our time, when the common for all mankind world civilization arises on Earth, LeibnizТ ideas turn out to be actual in the highest degree. Science and rational economy really prove to be the factor of unification of different cultures and peoples. It is not the aggressiveness of Europecentrism or the imperialism of European peoples, which is the base of this, but the nature itself of human rationality. Theseа expressed in different languages common principles of the rational thinking turn out to be identical in different cultures. Scientific truth proves to be the powerful uniting principle. And all, which pretends on superrational spiritual significance, and every, rooted in mystical experience, religious culture is being testedа by scientific analyses, in order to reveal the true forms of intercourse with the Divine.

 

Sourse materials

1.     Leibniz G.W. Works in 4 volumes(in Russian). Philosovskoe Nasledie.Moscow, 1982-1984.

2.     Leibniz G.W. Writings on China.Tr.,int.,notes and comm. by D.J.Cook and H.Rosemont. Open Court,1994.

3.     Leibniz G.W. Das Neueste von China(1697): Novissima Sinica. Hrsg. und uebers.von H.G.Nesselrath und Reinbothe. Koeln,1979.

 

 

Secondary works

 

1.     Jong - Suа Ahn. LeibnizТ Philosophie und die Chinesische Philosophie. Hartung- Gorre Verlag. Konstanzer Dissertationen (273). Konstanz, 1990.

2.     Katasonov V.N. Metaphysical mathematics of XVII century(in Russian). Moscow,1993.

3.     Leibniz und Europa. VI Internationaler Leibniz - Kongress. Vortraege, II Teil. Hannover 18-23 Juli. 1994.

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